Methods To Prevent Barre In Knitted Fabric

Methods To Prevent Barre In Knitted Fabric In textile production, one of the most common and perplexing quality issues is barrà ©. The factors that can cause or contribute to barrà © are varied and diverse. For this reason, when a barrà © problem is detected, the skills of a sleuth may be required to expose the problem and eliminate its cause. Once a cause is identified, steps can be taken to minimize or eliminate the barrà ©, and better quality fabrics can be produced. This discussion will center on knitted fabrics. DISCUSSIONS The noun barrà © is defined by ASTM1 as an unintentional, repetitive visual pattern of continuous bars and stripes usually parallel to the filling of woven fabric or to the courses of circular knitted fabric. In a warp knit, barrà © normally runs in the length direction, following the direction of yarn flow. Barrà © can be caused by physical, optical, dye related differences in the yarn, geometric differences in the fabric structure, or by any combination of these differences. A barrà © streak can be one or several courses wide. A typical characteristic of barrà © is that it generally consists of stripes that repeat. Isolated or intermittent defects may or may not be barrà ©. 1 ASTM D123-96a Standard Terminology Relating to Textiles 1 Various aspects of barrà © are important for consideration and discussion. The first is the identification of barrà ©. Secondly, how can barrà © be analyzed? What are the causes of barrà ©, and finally, how can it be prevented? IDENTIFICATION OF BARRÉ The first step in a barrà © investigation is to observe and define the problem. Barrà © can be the result of physical causes that can usually be detected, or it can be caused by optical or dyeability differences that may be nearly impossible to isolate in the fabric. Barrà © analysis methods that help to discriminate between physical barrà © and barrà © caused by other reasons include Flat Table Examinations, Light Source Observation, and the Atlas Streak Analyzer. Flat Table Examination For a visual barrà © analysis, the first step is to lay a full-width fabric sample out on a table and view both sides from various angles. Generally, if the streaky lines run in the yarn direction that is in the course direction, apparent color differences can be seen by looking down at the fabric in a direct visual line with the yarn or course direction, and the defect can be positively identified as a barrà © defect. Viewing the fabric with a light source in the background will show if the barrà © is physical. Light Source Observation After completing an initial Flat Table Examination, a Light Source Examination may provide further useful information. Full width fabric samples should be examined 2 under two surface lighting conditions, ultraviolet (UV) and fluorescent light. Observations that should be made while viewing under lights are: 1. the frequency and width of the barrà ©, 2. whether the streaks are dark or light, and 3. the total length of pattern repeat. Ultraviolet light, commonly referred to as black light, allows the presence of mineral oils to be more easily detected, due to their radiant energy (glow). When observed under UV light, fabrics with streaks that exhibit glow suggest improper or insufficient preparation. A change in composition or content of oil/wax by the spinner or knitter without appropriate adjustments in scouring can create this problem. Fluorescent lighting simulates the mode of observation that is common to most inspection tables in mills and will highlight whether the barrà © is perceivable in an industry quality control setting. Atlas Streak Analyzer The function of the Atlas Streak Analyzer is to isolate barrà © caused by physical differences. A fabric swatch is combined with polystyrene sheet film, and the Atlas Streak Analyzer produces a plastic impression of a fabric surface by incorporating specific conditions of pressure and heat. The absence of color on the plastic impression ensures that only physical streak effects will be seen. The plastic impression is examined to determine whether the streak alignment matches the 3 streaks observed on the fabric. However, impressions made from spun yarns such as cotton can be difficult to read due to the inherent yarn variation characteristic of spun yarns. Also, a too rapid cooling of the test specimen after making an impression can produce a moirà © pattern. From a valid plastic impression, the barrà © source can be identified as: 1. physical with all streaks showing on the impression, 2. optical or dyeability variations where none of the color streaks are aligned on the impression, and 3. a combination of physical and dyeability differences where some streaks align with those on the impression, and some do not. Fabrics with combination causes present the greatest challenge for analysis. If the streak analyzer indicates the same barrà © pattern as seen in the fabric, then the barrà © stripes are physical in nature. This can relate to several physical causes such as yarn tensions, stitch length, yarn count, twist differences, etc. Yarn tension causes can be found by raveling adjacent courses and measuring the lengths of yarn removed from each course. If all the lengths raveled from the fabric are the same, the pieces can be weighed to determine if the yarn counts are the same. 4 If the plastic replica shows no stripes, then the barrà © is due to chemical causes or to light reflectance differences. Chemical causes relate to improper preparation, and light reflectance differences relate to non-uniform dyestuff penetration or reflectance. The next step is to remove the color and evaluate the stripped sample before re-dyeing to determine if the removal of dye was complete and if the barrà © is still present. An uneven or incomplete stripping can indicate an additional strip. If the color is stripped uniformly and the barrà © is gone, then the sample should be re-dyed. If after stripping and over dyeing the fabric no longer has barrà ©, then the barrà © was caused by improper preparation. If the barrà © remains, then the problem is related to optical or light reflectance problems. PHYSICAL BARRÉ ANALYSIS When the cause of barrà © is determined or presumed to be physical in nature, physical fabric analysis should be done. Physical barrà © causes are generally considered to be those which can be linked to yarn or machine differences. Methods of physical barrà © analysis include fabric dissection, microscopy, and the Roselon Knit Extension Tester. Fabric Dissection To perform accurate fabric dissection analysis, a fabric sample that contains several barrà © repetitions is required. First, the barrà © streak boundaries are marked by the placement of straight pins and/or felt markers. Individual yarns are removed from light and dark streak sections, and twist level, twist direction, and cut length 5 weight determinations are made and recorded. For reliable mean values to be established, data should be collected from at least two light/dark repeats. After compilation of yarn information, the numbers can be compared individually to adjacent yarns as well as by groupings of light and dark shades. Microscopy Microscopic examination is useful for verifying yarn-spinning systems. Yarns from different spinning systems can have different light reflectance and dye absorption properties resulting in barrà © when mixed. Ring-spinning produces yarn that is smooth with all fibers twisted in a tight helix. Open-end spinning produces yarn with wrapper fibers that form a belt around the diameter of the yarn at irregular intervals. Air jet spinning produces yarn with more wrapper fibers that form a continuous spiraling band around the inner fibers that are more parallel to the axis of the yarn. Microscopy can also reveal a shift in loop formation in knitted fabrics when twist direction (S and Z) differences are present. Roselon Knit Extension Tester2 Barrà © produced by knitting machinery is relatively common, is the easiest to see in the greige, and is the easiest to correct. Often uneven yarn tension during knitting may be a cause. To test for uneven tension, the Roselon Knit Extension Tester can be used. For this test, a fabric sample is cut and raveled to yield yarn samples from light and dark streak areas. The yarn ends are taped and clamped 2 Source: Spinlon Industries Incorporated, 18 S. Fifth Street, Quakertown, Pennsylvania 18951 6 to the tester. As each yarn is stretched to the maximum extension point, the points are plotted on graph paper. Comparisons are usually made visually rather than mathematically. CAUSES OF BARRÉ The varied and diverse causes of barrà © can generally be summed up in one word INCONSISTENCY. An inconsistency that leads to barrà © can originate in one or more of the following categories: ! fiber quality/raw material management, ! yarn formation/supply management, ! knitting processes, and ! preparation and dyeing techniques Fiber Quality/Raw Material Management 1. Failure to control fiber diameter (micronaire or denier) from laydown to laydown. 2. Too high a C.V. of micronaire in the laydown for a given mills opening line blending efficiency. 3. Failure to control the fiber color in the mix (grayness Rd, yellowness +b). 4. Failure to control maturity/fineness in a laydown 5. Most, if not all, fiber barrà © can be controlled by the above four items; however, under certain unusual circumstances, it may be beneficial to also select mixes using ultraviolet reflectance information for each bale of cotton. 7 Micronaire Average micronaire must be controlled within a laydown and from laydown to laydown. Controlling average micronaire in the laydown may not be sufficient to completely eliminate barrà ©. Other micronaire related causes of barrà © are: ! > 0.2 difference in micronaire. ! > 0.1 change in mix-to-mix average micronaire. ! > 12.0 % CV of micronaire within the laydown. It may be necessary to change the laydown averages periodically to make use of all the bales in the warehouse. This must be done slowly with no more than a 0.1 change in mix-to-mix averages. Figure 1 shows acceptable changes in micronaire from laydown to laydown. No barrà © from micronaire differences should show in knitted fabrics when yarns are mixed on the knitting machine from consecutive laydowns. However, if laydowns vary more than 0.1 micronaire, for example laydowns #1 (4.3 mic.) and #6 (4.6 mic.) in Figure 1, then barrà © is much more likely to occur. 8 Figure 1: Slowing Changing Micronaire Average in Laydown Acceptable Change in Micronaire From Laydown to Laydown3.53.63.73.83.94.04.14.24.34.44.51234567891011121314Laydown NumberMicronarie Figure 2 shows a high CV% in the micronaire for bales within a laydown. The laydown shown has 24 bales with an average of 4.1 micronaire and a CV% of 17.7. The change in micronaire from bale to bale is more than a 0.1 change. Also, the CV% is more than 12.0% and would probably result in barrà ©. High Micronaire CV% in Laydown3.53.73.94.14.34.54.7123456789101112131415161718192021222324Bale NumberMicronaireAvg. 4.1 CV% 17.7 * Figure 2: Results of Changing the Micronaire Average too Rapidly Max +/- 1.0 mic 9 Maturity and Fineness Although micronaire gives an indication of fiber maturity, it does not directly measure that property. Maturity and fineness related causes of barrà © include: ! Blending cotton from different growth areas or seed varieties. ! Immature fiber content such as white specks, neps, etc. Yarn Formation/Supply Even with proper fiber selection to reduce raw material effects on barrà ©, techniques in the opening, cleaning, blending, and carding areas can have an impact on barrà ©. These variations can occur at carding where different amounts of non-lint content removal from card to card can be a problem. Poor blending of fiber from opening through finisher drawing cannot be overlooked. In ring spinning, the running of different types of spindle tapes and the use of different cots or new and used cots mixed together on the same frame can create barrà ©. Faulty management in the spinning plant can result in the following yarn related causes of barrà ©: 1. Yarn count variations. 2. Yarn twist variation. 3. Wrong yarn size, color, blend level, twist direction. 4. Mixed yarn lots. 5. Mixed shipment dates of same dye lot. 10 6. Uneven waxing or oiling of yarn 7. Improper conditioning. Knitting Processes and Yarn Management The set-up and operation of a knitting machine is complex and requires precision settings to produce first quality goods. Machine related causes of barrà © include: 1. Different stitch settings (stitch lengths). 2. Improper tension at a feed. 3. Faulty cylinder or dial cam settings. 4. Malfunctioning of storage or tape feeders. 5. Improper threading of yarn. 6. Variations at take-down or spreader system. 7. Machine vibration. 8. Dirt, lint, and/or yarn fragments in the camming system, tricks, needles, or sinkers. 9. Variation in oil content. 10. Worn needles, which generally produce length direction streaks. 11. Uneven cylinder height needles (wavy barrà ©). 12. Worn cylinder and/or dial. Even with a properly set-up machine, barrà © can still occur at knitting due to poor yarn management. Examples of poor yarn management at knitting include: 11 1. Mixing yarns of different counts. 2. Mixing yarns from different spinning systems. 3. Mixing yarns with different blend levels. 4. Mixing yarns from different suppliers. 5. Mixing yarns with different twist level/twist direction. 6. Mixing yarns with different degrees of hairiness. 7. Mixing yarns with different amounts of wax. 8. Mercerization differences. 9. Excessive backwinding or abrasion during this process. 10. If yarns are conditioned, then each lot must be uniformly conditioned. Preparation and Dyeing Techniques Normally, dyehouses have standard preparation procedures and formulas that work very well in terms of removal of non-fibrous contaminants and natural fiber pigmentation. However, some fabrics can exhibit barrà © that is caused by either optical or dyeability issues. Often, the barrà © is not created in dyeing, but can be highlighted. In this scenario, the dyeing is not the cause but the messenger of the problem. Typically, barrà © is not a problem in whites, only in dyed fabrics. Therefore, if a fabric is known to have barrà ©, then that roll should be processed into a white. 12 Preparation can help mask barrà ©, but cannot and will not eliminate it. The cause of the barrà © must be eliminated for future rolls to be free of the defect. The scour and/or bleach procedure can be intensified to mask the barrà ©. This can be done by combinations of using a higher temperature or longer processing times. Usually the chemistry will remain the same; however, in some cases, it may have to be increased or changed. If any changes are made in the preparation procedure, the fabric and resultant shade will possibly change in whiteness, strength, and appearance. In fact, the whiteness will almost always change. If whiter, the old dye formula will need to be adjusted. The strength of the fabric may be affected to the point where it becomes a problem. Finally, the surface of the fabric may change so that it may not match previous lots. As a result of more aggressive preparation to cover barrà ©, it is important to evaluate such changes on small samples in the lab or a sample machine. Tension can play an integral role in not only the formation of the fabric, but also during preparation, dyeing, and finishing. As with all variables, it must be controlled to known parameters and be consistent. Any inconsistencies in tension could change the morphology of the cotton (i.e. during mercerization), level of dye pick- 13 up, or surface appearance (i.e. during mechanical finishing such as brushing or sanding). PREVENTION OF BARRÉ As discussed in the text, barrà © is caused by inconsistencies in materials, equipment, or processing. To prevent barrà © from occurring, consistency must be maintained through all phases of textile production. Stock yarns should be properly and carefully labeled to avoid mix-ups. Fugitive tints and/or marked cones can be useful for accurate yarn segregation. Inventory should be controlled on a first in/first out basis. All equipment should be properly maintained and periodically checked. In spinning and knitting before beginning full-scale production, sample dyeings can be done to check for barrà ©. Knit machine operators should be trained to look for barrà © as it occurs in the greige. If spotted, the machine should be stopped until the cause is eliminated. Salvaging a fabric lot with a barrà © problem may be possible through careful dye selection. Color differences can be masked by using shades with very low light reflectance (navy blue, black) or high light reflectance (light yellow, orange, or finished white). Dye suppliers should be able to offer assistance in this area. Also, if the cause of the barrà © is an uneven distribution of oil or wax, a more thorough preparation of the fabric before dyeing may result in more uniform dye coverage. 14 With close cooperation between production and quality control personnel, barrà © problems can be successfully analyzed and solved. Recommendations to minimize barrà © include: ! Knit an entire dye lot from the same knitting machine. ! Use only yarn from the same spinning lot. ! Use only from the same shipment date if possible. ! If yarn shipment dates must be mixed, then use consecutive shipment dates. ! Determine through laboratory analysis and experience if the preparation procedures are sufficient or can they be modified to eliminate the problem. ! Determine if some shades and dyestuffs are less susceptible to showing barrà ©, and apply those to problem fabrics. ! Make use of yarn/fabric analysis systems such as CYROS ®. ! Identify those rolls within a dye lot that have mixed yarn shipment dates so that it is known when the fabrics go through the dyehouse. ! Identify dye lots that have rolls from different yarn shipments before dyeing. CASE STUDY IN BARRÉ A 100% cotton, ring-spun single jersey style T-shirt is knitting in production with a yarn that does not have a barrà © problem. This style has been knitting for numerous days and no more of the yarn is available for creeling on the machine as the yarns are knitting out. Some yarn packages are skinners and others are full five-pound packages. The machine is 24-inch diameter with 80 feeds. 15 When the new yarn is creeled onto one of the 80 positions, the mixing of yarn shipment dates begins to take place. For this discussion, we will assume that this new yarn will cause barrà © when mixed with the old yarn. Once all positions are knitting the new yarn, there will be no barrà ©. How many rolls of fabric will have barrà © when both these yarns are present in the rolls? If the knitter is making 50 pound rolls, then each yarn package will supply 1/80th of the 50-pound roll or 0.625 pounds of yarn. Therefore, the new yarn will make 8.0 rolls of fabric with barrà © (5-pound package divided by 0.625 pounds per package for a 50 pound roll). It is important to realize that while this new package is knitting, other old yarn positions on the creel are also being replaced by new yarns. By the time the first new package has knitted out, all feeds will be using the new yarn. When the last old package is replaced and all positions have new yarn, the barrà © will disappear. Often, many machines will be knitting the same style. If ten machines are knitting this style and are using the old yarn and new yarns are placed on these 80 feed machines, then the total number of rolls knitted with barrà © will be 80. A total of 4,000 pounds of fabric will be made with barrà ©. If the style in question weighs 5.8 ounces per linear yarn, then a total of 11,035 yards of fabric will be made. Further, if it can be assumed that each yard of fabric can make 1.2 shirts, then a total of 13,240 defective T-shirts will be made. This is 1,103 dozen 16 garments. If the cost per shirt is $2.05 per unit, then a loss of $27,142 plus is realized. If open-end yarn was used for this case study instead of ring-spun yarns, then 8-pound packages of yarn could be used. This would result in 128 rolls containing 6,400 pounds and 17,655 yards of fabric. From this, 21,186 T-shirts (1766 dozens) would have been made. Based on a cost per shirt of $1.86, the loss would be $39,405. The result is that bigger packages mean bigger losses. The best methods to reduce the possibility of this catastrophe are listed below: 1. When mixing yarn shipment dates of only one week, try to reduce the number of machines using the old and new yarns. 2. As more machines are expending the old yarn, consolidate the old packages to fewer machines. This means removing the yarns from one creel and using them on other machines that are still knitting the old yarn. 3. Knit dye lots from a single machine if possible. 4. When a roll is known to have mixed yarns, a laboratory dyeing should be done on a swatch from the roll to determine if barrà © is present. If not, then proceed as normal. If barrà © is present, then the roll should be processed in 17 shades that are not known to be barrà © sensitive or prepared with more aggressive chemistry. CONCLUSIONS It is evident that barrà © is a problem that results from inconsistencies and is a result of poor management of fiber, yarn, and/or related knitting processes. The spinner, the knitter, and the dyer must communicate and work as a team to reduce the potential for barrà © to occur. A well planned and executed system of monitoring the spinning, knitting, dyeing, and finishing systems in the mill can provide for defect free fabrics. 18

Effects of, and Uses for Paracetamol

Effects of, and Uses for Paracetamol Paracetamol, also known as acetaminophen, is a widely used medicinal drug available over the counter The chemical name for Paracetamol is N-acetyl-p-aminophenol. Over-the-counter (OTC) Analgesic and antipyretic action with weak anti-inflammatory action Synergic effect with other analgesics, especially codeine and NSAIDs, resulting in better overall pain control Major ingredient in cold flu remedies Used in combination with opioid analgesics Oral Paracetamol has an oral bioavilabity of 63-89%. A drug given orally goes through first pass metabolism. Intravenous Intravenous administration of paracetamol has a bioavilabity of 100% Rectal Paracetamol has a rectal bioavilabity of 24-98%. Bioavailability is the amount of dose absorbed from the site of administration Oral administration has a little first pass metabolism in the liver and is well absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract First pass metabolism involves the drug being absorbed into the portal vein system via the intestine wall after which it is carried to the liver. Before the drug reaches its target site it may therefore to some extent be metabolised in the liver. A plasma concentration of 10-20mcg.ml-1 for paracetamol results in an antipyretic effect however the concentration needed to lead to an analgesia effect is not properly known. All three routes of administration have a significant difference in the time needed to reach peak plasma concentrations. Of all three routes intravenous administration reaches peak plasma concentration in the shortest amount of time and suppository takes the longest, Oral : For adults 325-650mg tablets can be taken every 4 to 6 hours 1 gram can be taken every 4 hours with a maximum of 4 doses in 24 hours. Rectal: suppositories are available in 250 and 500mg. Two 500mg suppositories can be taken by adults and children over 12 IV: The maximum dose that can be given is 3g in 24 hours For children there new dosage guidelines that put children into 7 precise age groups Since IV administration has 100% bioavilabity there is a high chance of toxicity in patients that have renal and/or hepatic problems Absorbed through the wall of the intestine and into the blood. Speed and efficiency of the absorption is determined by several factors which include the pKa, log P and molecular mass of the drug Low molecular mass and is almost completely unionised in the small intestine which allows it to be absorbed more easily Oral Bioavailability – 70%-90% Rectal Bioavailability – 30%-70% Distributed throughout the body fluids in a homogeneous way Analgesic activity is attributable to the small fraction that penetrates into the brain Binds to plasma proteins at less than 20% A high degree of protein binding makes the drug long acting The glucuronidation and sulfation pathway for paracetamol metabolism lead to the production of unharmful and on toxic products. The middle N-Hydroxylation and rearrangement pathway mediated by the isoenzyme of cytochrome p450 (CYP2E1 and CYP3A4) pathway leads to the production of toxic metabolite NAPQ1 which covalently binds to cell macromolecules in overdose. In normal cases NAPQ1 binds with glutathione resulting in an unrhamful and nontoxic product. Part A of the figure shows the metabolism of paracetamol in a healthy individual. Around 95% of the drug is conjugated with glucuronide and excreted in the urine. The leftover is conjugated with glutathione Part B shows the metabolism of paracetamol in an individual that is starved. The conjugation of glutathione does not take place adequately and its depletion results in the build of hepatotoxic NAPQ1 Excreted in urine Predominantly in the form of inactive glucuronide and sulphate conjugates A small amount of the drug is converted to a very reactive alkylating metabolite that is inactivated with reduced glutathione and is excreted in the urine as cysteine and mercapturic acid conjugates Paracetamol is absorbed from the GI tract and a peak plasma concentration occurs within 10-60 minutes after being taken orally. It has a half-life of approximately 2 hours It is distributed into the majority of body tissues Has an elimination half life ranging from 1-3 hours The volume of distribution for paracetamol is around 1L/Kg of body weight with an insignificant amount of the drug binding to plasma protein. Inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX) – specifically COX-2 Reduces the oxidised form of the COX enzyme, preventing it from forming pro-inflammatory chemicals Peripheral anti-inflammatory activity is usually limited by high level of peroxides present in inflammatory lesions (including several other factors) Metabolites of paracetamol act upon the spinal cord via TRPA1-receptors modulates the endogenous cannabinoid system Paracetamol works inhibiting the synthesis of prostaglandins Because of its selectivity for COX-2 it does not significantly inhibit the production of the pro-clotting thromboxanes. Metabolies: suppressing the signal transduction from the superficial layers of the dorsal horn to alleviate pain. The nuclear receptor constitutive androstane receptor (CAR) can be activated by paracetamol. This induces the expression of three cytochrome P450 enzymes that lead to the transformation of paracetamol into N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine (NAPQI) is a reactive and toxic metabolite. It can be detoxified by conjugation with glutathione Paracetamol is a safe drug and doesn’t cause toxicity unless taken in the wrong dosage or in extreme circumstances such as starvation. Also when taken with alcol for long periods of times it enhances toxicity as the coentration of toxic metabolites such as NAPQ1 increases. NAPQ1 firstly goes through detoxification in the liver via glutathione conjugation catalysed by the enzyme GST and then goes through acetylation in the kidneys. This step is catalysed b M-acetyl transferase. It then gets excreted in the urine. The cytochrome p450 enzyme (isoenzyme CYP2E1) procures hepatoxic metabolites in small quantities. The phase 1 metabolism of paracetamol mediated by p450 gives rise to NAPQ1, that is detoxified by phase 2 conjugation with glutathione. During overdose depletion of glutathione occurs and NAPQ1 accumulates Phase 1 metabolism is where the drug molecule foes though basic structural alteration through reduction, hydrolysis, or oxidation (which is catalysed cytochrome p450 enzymes) Phase 2 metabolism involves conjugation (an ionised group attaches to the drug) making it metabolite water soluble. In the case of paracetamol overdose NAPQ1 can accumulate and can possibly lead to liver damage if left untreated It can also damage other organs that contains P450 enzymes such as the kidneys where the toxicity could result in renal dysfunction and pancreas. Liver toxicity can be prevented by blocking the activation of CAR with an antagonist or Paracetamol overdose occurs at around 7-8 g  in an adult and more than 150 mg/kg in children. Liver damage : The centrilobular zone is the first zone in the liver that gets affected by the toxicity. In extreme cases zones 1 and 2 present in the parenchyma get damaged. Kidney damage: renal dysfunction leads to the need of dialysis as a tubular necrosis table place because of the localised formation of NAPQ1.

Arthur Millers The Crucible Essay -- Arthur Miller Crucible Essays

Arthur Miller's The Crucible Arthur Miller demonstrates the familiarities of the life he lived in the 1950's and of everyday life we live in through his plays. He communicates through his work to the way people are in society. The extreme witch hysteria deteriorated the rational and emotional stability of its citizens. This exploited the population's weakest qualities, and insecurities. The obvious breakdown in social order led to the tragedy that saw innocent souls hang on the accusation of witchcraft. Miller's way of writing plays which relate to our lives and the way in which we do things and treat one another is very interesting. He seems to see the world a different way to most people and expresses our everyday actions and the things we do wrong in another form. The audience should see parallels in the play to happenings in our every day life. The Crucible was written in the middle of the McCarthy political "witch-hunt" in America. The play relates to the fears in America that the philosophy of communism was spreading there and would eventually undermine and destroy capitalism and the American way of life. Almost any criticism the government received, in the eyes of McCarthy was not acceptable. A petition for communist sympathisers was set up in which Miller signed. He was asked to confess to signing his name. He quoted: "In truth, I had supported these various causes to express my fear of fascism and my alienation from the waste of potential in America while knowing nothing about life under any socialist regime" The activities seemed to have been linked in Millers mind with witchcraft trials two centuries ago. Miller saw these public confessions as parallels with the naming at Salem... ... play includes interesting messages about how reasonable individuals can become completely irrational and get carried away when they become part of a mob. But in the end, who is to blame? Puritanism, Abigail or Danforth? The play is deliberately complex and multi-faceted, and not in plain and simple black and white, even though the characters themselves are black and white. In my opinion everyone's to blame, If one person would have seen sense or not added to problem or admitted it was a hoax it would have never happened. If Abigail hadn't added to the story it wouldn't have happened. If Judge Danforth hadn't of been so single-minded he would have seen through straight through Abigail's sweet and innocent routine, and so on. But at the end as in many situations in our own lives no one is completely to blame. Very rarely is anything one person's fault.

Modern Art: An Art of Expression and Freedom :: Modern Art Artists Dance Theatre Essays

I. Introduction Wherever man lives there is art, because art is anything made or done by man that affects or moves us so that we feel and see beauty. Man uses his imagination to invent a unique beauty. The artist's feelings and inspiration affects on how he will express his art. Through the major development of technologies and social changes that have taken place in the 19th century, Modern art flourished during this period and caused a lot movements of modern art to form, some of these famous movement are cubism, abstract expressionism, pop art, and surreal art. Modern art also become man’s inspiration in life because these great art can express a unique feeling in which a person is attracted to that kind. This also means that a modern artist learns from himself and does not need any major training, a modern artist learns by himself through his experiences and imagination. Modern art runs a very important role in man’s life throughout history, because it that does not only give us inspiration but also the freedom to express ourselves through the use of different mediums. II. Statement of the problem This research aims to answer the following questions: 1. What are the general informations about Modern Art? 2. What is the beauty of Modern Art? 3. What are the different styles in making Modern Art? III. Presentation A. Definition of Modern Art Parallel to the scientific, technological, and social changes that have taken place in the 20th century are the rich varieties of art styles that have developed. Notable are the number of â€Å"isms†, such as Fauvism, expressionism, cubism, futurism, constructivism, neoplasticism, surrealism, precisionism. Modern Art didn’t have a main origin from where it came from. But there is a general agreement that it was first seen between 18th century to 19th century, from the French revolutionist movement. Art in its broader meaning, however, involves both skill and creative imagination in a musical, literary, visual, or performance context. Art provides the person or people who produce it and the community that observes it with an experience that might be aesthetic, emotional, intellectual, or a combination of these qualities. Modern Art does not follow any traditional rule, in fact Modern Art breaks this barrier. In the traditional way of painting, you must the true nature of your work; you must have the balance in creating it. The rules that are working on our universe must be applied to the old traditional painting.

Carpal tunnel syndrome Essay

Video games are very popular with children all over the world, they keep kids occupied and entertained. A lot of parents are concerned about how these video games are affecting their children. Are these video games good or bad for our children? Video gaming has both positive and negative effects on children. Video games are not only entertaining but also educational; they create challenges for children to take on in order to proceed to new levels. Video gaming is also very influential with a child. That is why it is very important to monitor children while playing. There are many positive effects to playing video games. Playing a video game is a way to exercise the brain, it helps children develop skills like following directions, problem solving and hand-eye coordination that develop fine motor and spatial skills. Video games contribute a lot to education, like developing reading skills; gamers must read to get instructions, follow storylines, and get information. Gamers also become more determined because, usually they don’t succeed the first time playing a level so they try and try again until they move on to the next level. Games can provide a positive outlet for children to release bottled up frustrations the same way many sports like basketball and football do. Video games allow parents to bond with their children and play together and can be something they share in common. Of course with every good there is a bad. Most of the bad things about video games are usually blamed on the violence that is in them. Children who play more violent video games are more likely to have more aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Playing too much video game keeps children indoors and become less social with family and friends. It also causes children to spend less time doing other activities like doing homework or playing sports. Some video games teach children improper morals and are easily confused between reality and fantasy. Excessive gameplay can contribute to poor performance in school and also cause a slew of health issues like obesity, video-induced seizures, postural, muscular and skeletal disorders and carpal tunnel syndrome. Children who are spending too much time playing video games may show signs of impulsive behavior and have attention problems. The effects of video games vary on children depending on the kind of parenting. Children usually imitate what they see in these video games so it’s important for parents to understand their children’s maturity level and what kind of games parents should allow their children to play. We are now living in a sophisticated and high-tech world so video games are essential to the development of children with today’s technology. The point is for parents to understand that playing video games have different effects on different children. The positives of video games definitely outweigh the negatives of video games especially with proper supervision of the children who play these video games.

History Notes on Cuban Missile Crisis and Protest in America in the 1960’s

History Matric Notes. The Cuban Missile Crisis. This was the most serious crisis between the USA and USSR in the history of the Cold War. Cuba was a communist country only 90 miles off the coast of USA. In October 1962 US spy planes identified nuclear missile sites being built in Cuba. Background: Cuba traditionally had a passive relationship with the USA. Batista who was president/dictator at the time was viewed as safeguard against communism by the USA, but when revolutionary Fidel Castro overthrew him in 1959 they became suspicious. Castro introduced socialist reforms and started trade negotiations with the Soviet Union. At the height of the Cold War, the existence of a communist country so close to the United States was viewed with great alarm. They secretly started to plan to invade Cuba and overthrow Castro. ’ –> Bay of Pigs: In April 1961, with backing from the CIA, an armed force of Cuban exiles, with supplies from Kennedy, invaded Cuba. This was a huge failu re as Castro’s forces easily defeated the invaders, killing them or taking them as prisoners. This affair was deeply embarrassing for the US as their involvement in the incident had been publicly exposed, and also because it was so badly planned and executed.After this Castro officially declared he communist and turned increasingly towards the USSR for economic and diplomatic support. ’ –> What happened after this? To avoid another US-backed invasion of Cuba and to co-operate with Krushev (USSR president), Castro agreed to the construction of Soviet missiles in Cuba. The Americans watched this happen with great alarm and when the U2 spy plane flew over Cuba in 1962 showing that nuclear missiles were being built shit went down. What Kennedy Did. * Broadcast the American people, informing them of the potential threat and what he intended to do about it. The Americans blocked Cuba and stopped any ship suspected of carrying any arms. * The Soviets and Castro comp lained to the UN, saying the US was threatening world peace. * Kennedy threatened to invade Cuba and remove the missiles by force. *The next 10 days were extremely tense as the world was only the brink of nuclear war. ‘It was Krushev who broke the standoff and agreed to remove the missiles as long as the US agreed never to invade Cuba again. The Cuban Missile Crisis then ended and Kennedy became an instant hero to the West for his apparent ‘tough’ approach’ The Outcome. ) Kennedy became a ‘hero’ and gained a great reputation in the USA for standing up to the Soviet Union. Khrushev also became known in Soviet circles for being the peacemaker as he was willing to make the first compromise. 2) The relationship between the USA and USSR improved and a permanent ‘hotline’ directly liked from the White house to the Kremlin was set up to avoid this ever happening again. A year later they both signed the Nuclear Test Ban which limited tests on nuclear weapons. 3) Cuba stayed Communist and highly armed. However the missiles were removed.Stuff to think about. –> Why did the Soviets place nuclear missiles in Cuba? * They genuinely wanted to defend Cuba. * Khrushev was concerned about the missile gap between the USSR and USA and seized any opportunity to get missiles in closer range of the USA. * Khrushev wanted to test how strong the Americans really were. (Back off or Face up) * Khrushev wanted to use the missiles as a bargaining centre. Agree to remove them in return for some American concessions. –> Did the ‘Bay of Pigs’ incident contribute to /spark the start of the Cuban Missile Crisis? Key Terms.Cold War – Started in 1945, after WW2, the Cold War was an ideological battle between capitalist democratic USA (West) and the communist authoritarian USSR (East). There were never any direct battles between each other’s soil; arms race, space race. Both these countries influen ced other countries. Containment – This was the policy that was outlined the Truman Doctrine, in order to prevent the spread of communism throughout the world based on the Domino Theory (when one country fell to communism, others countries will follow) Statesmanship – Usually a political leader of a country who is espected for their actions or ‘doing the right thing’ for his county. Brinkmanship – The practice of pushing a dangerous situation or confrontation to the limit of safety especially to force a desired outcome. Civil Rights Movement The 1960’s was a decade of popular protest. The CRM in the US was a great e. g. of how effective popular mass protests could be. As a result there was less discrimination against African Americans. Some activists felt that the CRM did not go far enough and the Black Power Movement then arose.At the same time women began to demand equal rights and their was a widespread opposition to the American war in Vi etnam which led to protests by students for international peace. The Civil Rights Movement and Black Power Movement in the USA. In the 1960’s, African American made up 10% of the population. Many of them did not have the same political rights as white Americans as there was prejudice and discrimination against them. This lead to the emergence of the CRM which used non-violent tactics to demand quality and end segregation. Others however adopted the more violent and radical approaches of the BPM.The position of African Americans in the 1960’s Even though there was progress in the 1950’s African Americans were still subjected to segregation and discrimination, especially in the southern states. For example in 1954 the US Supreme court ruled that segregation in schools were illegal but most southern schools remained segregated. Although it was the policy of the US federal government to end segregation, it was not properly enforced. *However the was some success in the 50’s: Rosa Parks Montgomery Bus Boycott –> This boycott resulted in the Supreme Court outlawing the segregation of buses in ’56.As a result of this the minister Martin Luther King emerged as the leader of the CRM. How did the CRM gain momentum in the 1960’s? In 1960 black students at a North Carolina university staged a sit-in at a lunch counter who refused to serve black customers. Their example was followed by 70  000 other students who held similar protests in other segregated facilities. Soon thousands more black and white students joined in a massive campaign of non-violence protest to demand for desegregated facilities. At the Lincoln Memorial in 1963, 250  000 people from all religious ;amp; ethnic backgrounds came together to demand full racial equality.This crowd remained peaceful the entire time and listened to one of the most memorable speeches in history, the ‘I have a dream’ speech by MLK. A year later was known as â⠂¬ËœFreedom Summer’ where black and white civil campaigners from the more liberal states went to Mississippi to open ‘Freedom Schools’. These schools taught basic literacy, black history and stressed black pride. But there was a violent reaction to all of this; Freedom workers beaten and arrested. As a result of this the US Congress passed the Civil Rights Act ’64 barring segregation ;amp; discrimination in employment in all public facilities.What was the Black Power Movement? The CRM was focused on ending segregation in the south, however their was a lot of segregation in the north. Many black Americans living in the north rejected the non –violent approaches of the CRM and Southern Christian Leadership Conference and turned to Black Power instead. Malcolm X argued that violence was necessary to tackle white racism and self-defence against groups like the KKK. He was critical of King’s non-violent approach and said that he held black people back. Malcolm promoted black separation believing blacks needed to be self-reliant.As a result of the BPM black mayors were elected in 7 cities and programmes to improve housing facilities were put in place. *Black Panthers were a militant group within BPM who very willing to use violence. The Women’s Movement During the 1950’s women were expected to stay at home and raise families. There were a limited number of careers women could choose from and their skills were often undermined by sexist attitudes and sexual harassment. Women’s Movement in USA. * In the 60’s women’s attitude began to change. They were no longer willing to accept their inferior position in the work place. This new attitude was partially influenced by The Feminine Mystique – Betty Friedan ’63. Friedan argues that the American middle class home had become a comfortable ‘concentration camp’ for women. * Friedan and others set up the National Organisation for women (NOW) who aimed to raise the status of women and end discrimination. * Feminists used petitions, strikes and legal action to force employers into given women equal rights in the work force. –> The Women’s Movement in the US influenced many other women in other countries to take action such as Britain, Italy, Mexico and France.The Disarmament, Peace and Student Movements. A major concern in the 60’s was that the Cold War would become ‘hot’ and that a nuclear war would break out. Protest movements then emerged to ban nuclear weapons as well as Peace Movements who were against the drafting of young USA students into the Vietnam War. Disarmament Movement. After the USA had dropped atomic bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki during WW2 there was an extremely tense atmosphere as other countries started to develop nuclear weapons and the possibility of a nuclear war was becoming an actual possibility.Also the environmental damage caused by the nuc lear tests was becoming a concern. In 1958 Britain formed the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND). The CND held a four day march in London and each other year this march attracted more and more people. Branches of the CND spread all over Britain and by the 1960’s, anti-nuclear protests (‘Ban the Bomb’) all over the world were supported by hundreds of thousands of people. After the Cuban Missile Crisis US, USSR and Britain agreed to a ban on nuclear testing in the atmosphere, though not underground.After this DM got smaller as the threat of nuclear war was less immediate. When the US passed the nuclear non-proliferation Treaty in ’68 the Disarmament movement was considered a victory and ended. Peace Movement. Was against the Vietnam War and emerged in American Universities and then spread to other sections of American society. People had started to question why America was spending so much money they were unable to win and it reminded when Europe colonis ed Asia. The Vietnam War was the first televised war – people saw the devastation and suffering the war was causing Vietnam.The US introduced conscription to raise troops to fight in Vietnam. Some men refused to go (‘draft dodgers’) and many of them moved abroad. There were strikes and demonstration across all universities in America. The most serious protests occurred when President Nixon announced the US was extending the war to Cambodia in 1970. At Kent University in Ohio soldiers fired at student protestors killing four students. People were horrified, 400 universities closed and 2 million students went on strike. Student Movements. [Students questioned authority; parents, education system, government and values of society. The young people who grew up in the ‘60’s were known as the ‘baby boomers’ and by the mid 60’s most of them had begun enrolling in colleges and universities. Universities did not have the facilities to cope with so many students and many campuses became overcrowded. Many students were dissatisfied with the education system and how the universities were run. The CRM triggered student awareness of the problems in their society. Many of them joined the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). Some students protested by ‘dropping out’ of society and becoming hippies. They rejected conformity and the materialism of society. Don’t trust anyone over 30’ ‘Make Love, not War. ’ These protests were taking place all over the world and reached a peak in 1968. Key demands in these protests were greater participation by students in the decisions of the universities administration and a transformation of the curriculum. They also included wider political and social demands such as less violence by government and protests against the communist bloc in Eastern Europe. Key Terms Civil Society Protest – Forms of protest usually against laws or government po licies thought to be unjust taken by ordinary citizens of a country.Civil Rights Movement –Protest movement started by MLK devoted to peaceful and non-violent protest of civil disobedience against discrimination and segregation of black people in the USA and to gain full constitutional rights for all black citizens. Passive resistance – A deliberate policy adopted to oppose policies or laws whereby opposition is conveyed in a deliberate non-violent fashion. SCLC – Southern Christian Leadership Conference founded in 1957 by MLK which co-ordinated the fight for civil rights in the South for the black people of the USA.CORE – The Congress for Racial Equality , founded in 1942 , campaigned for civil rights 50’s – 60’s and is partially associated with the ‘Freedom Riders’ , sit-ins and registering black voters in the South. Black Power – This became the slogan of the more militant black movements in ’66. It advoc ated black identity based on black culture and black values. It argued for racial separation; blacks should run their own society without white interference. Black Power rejected passive resistance and urged black people to fight back if attacked.Nation of Islam – Black Muslims; argued for the establishment of a separate black identity and rejected black/white integration. Disarmament – Movement advocating that countries reduce their weapons spend less on the military and the removal or deactivation of nuclear weapons. Feminism – Rejected age-old patterns of discrimination against women and advocated that women have the same rights and privileges as men. ESSAY. PARTY. Civil Rights Movement vs. Black Power Movement During the 1950’s and 1960’s oppression in the black community of the United States of America was at its ultimate high.This severe oppression led to activists in the black community to finally speak out and demand change. The two main po litical activists during this fight and struggle for black equality were Martin Luther King Jnr. and Malcolm X. Although essentially fighting for the same outcomes, Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jnr. had very different ideals and strategies in their fight for civil rights. Martin Luther King who is known for his peaceful protesting during the Civil Rights Movement was born in a middle class, comfortable home. He graduated school at 15 were he then went on to college to graduate with a Bachelor Degree in Divinity.After his education he moved to Montgomery, Alabama where he became a Pastor. In 1955 King started the Civil Rights Movement to fight for the rights of oppressed Black Americans. The movement aimed to outlaw racial discrimination against African Americans and to grant them civil rights. King believed that through hard work, leadership and non -violent protest black Americans could achieve equality. In King’s address in March 1963 to the people of Washington he said ‘In the process of gaining our rightful place we must not be guilty of wrongful deeds.Let us not seek to satisfy our thirst for freedom by drinking from the cup of bitterness and hatred. ’ This shows us that King strongly believed in passive resistance and believed that black Americans must fight peacefully and without bitterness in order to gain equality. His ideals were shaped by his Christian faith and the teachings of Mahatma Gandhi, an ideological leader of India during the Indian independence movement. Malcolm X was born Malcolm Little – he changed his surname in rejection of slavery in America. Malcolm was born in a poor, deprived family with his seven brothers and sisters.Three of Malcolm’s brothers were killed by white men, as well as his uncle and father who were killed by the Ku Klux Klan. Malcolm spent most of his childhood in foster care after his mother was admitted into a mental institution after her husband and sons deaths. After being tol d ‘there was no such thing as a black lawyer’ Malcolm dropped out of school and became involved in stealing and drugs. He was eventually arrested and sent to prison. During his seven year incarceration he converted to Islam and joined the Nation of Islam.After he was released from prison he became the spokesperson for the Nation of Islam and became one of its most powerful speakers attracting thousands of African-Americans. Malcolm X unlike Martin Luther King believed in fighting violence with violence, he was against all white people and was even considered by critics as a racist. Malcolm X was no doubt an extremist; this can be shown from an extract of one his speeches to students in Mississippi in 1964: ‘Don’t try to be friends with somebody who is depriving you of your rights. They are not your friends. They are your enemies. Treat them like that.Fight and you’ll get your freedom. ’ Malcolm believed in the saying ‘separate but equal. ’ This is known as Black Nationalism which was what Malcolm X strived for. He believed that the black man should be able to control the politics and politicians in his community. It is clear that Malcolm X and Martin Luther king had very different ideas and strategies in their fight for Civil Rights. Malcolm was an extremist, whilst King was a passive leader. King believed in a joint fight with white supporters of the Civil Rights Movement, whilst Malcolm believed in complete independence from any white people in the fight for Civil Rights.The key difference between these two political activists is that unlike Martin Luther King, Malcolm X believed that rather then integrate with white society, black Americans should control every aspect of the black community. These extreme differences undoubtedly stem from the two political activists child-hoods and pasts. However, as different as these two were in terms of their styles of speaking and definition of equality, they both pro moted black pride, power and unity and fought for the civil rights of all black Americans. BothMalcolm and King gave hope to their people during times of struggle and main aims were to instil power and dignity to Black American in order to overcome the great prejudices they faced and to bring equality and justice to the black community of America We can conclude that Martin Luther King Jnr. and Malcolm X were contrasting political activists fighting for the same causes. The oppression these two extremely different individuals faced in their lives led them to become the two main political activists in the same fight for black equality and civil rights in America in the 1960’s.They shall always be remembered and praised for their contribution to equality of black people all over the world. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission The TRC was a court-like  restorative justice  body assembled in  South Africa  after the end of  apartheid. Witnesses who were identified as victims of gross human rights violations were invited to give statements about their experiences; some were selected for public hearings. Perpetrators of violence could also give testimony and request  amnesty from both civil and criminal prosecution. -;gt; Why was the TRC put in place? After 1994 when South Africa became a democratic country, it was decided that a process of healing and reconciliation should be embarked upon. There were two viewpoints, one from the ANC, which called for hearings to be held that would reveal the truth about the past, while on the other hand the National Party wanted a general amnesty for all apartheid crimes. In light of this it was finally agreed that a Truth and Reconciliation Commission be established. They came to a compromise; reveal and acknowledge the past and promote reconciliation and amnesty. * Consisted of Desmond Tutu and Dr Alex Boraine as well as 17 truth commissioners. * Was broadcast on TV, radio and newspapers (media and public h ad access) – biggest different between TRC in SA and TRC in other countries before hand. –>The aims of the TRC were: †¢ To investigate the causes of human violations during apartheid †¢ To recommend some form of compensation for victims of apartheid †¢ To grant amnesty to those found guilty of human rights violations – TRC argued this ould bring out more of the truth. (Not everyone was granted amnesty). –> Purpose of the TRC: ‘Having looked the beast of the past in the eye, having asked and received forgiveness and having made amends, let us shut the door on the past – not in order to forget it, but in order not to allow it to imprison us. Let us move into the glorious future of a new kind of society where people count, not because of biological irrelevancies †¦ but because they are persons of infinite worth created in the image of God. – Desmond Tutu. [Finding the truth about the past to rectify and move on t owards a better future] –>Three committees were set up to deal with the work of the TRC: †¢ Committee on Human Rights Violations †¢ Committee on Reparation and Rehabilitation was charged with restoring victims' dignity and formulating proposals to assist with rehabilitation. (Monetary Compensation). †¢ Committee on Amnesty considered applications from individuals who applied for amnesty in accordance with the provisions of the Act. Had to be politically motivated, proportionate and tell the whole truth. ) – DID NOT NEED TO SAY SORRY. –> Truth and Reconciliation? The TRC was viewed as much less effective in bringing about reconciliation. Some said that the proceedings only helped to remind them of the horrors that had taken place in the past when they had been working to forget such things. Thus, the TRC's effectiveness in terms of achieving those very things within its title is still debatable –> The TRC’s conclusion The TRC completed its report in 1998.It concluded that PW Botha’s government had moved from a policy of repression to one of killing of its opponents, as well as being responsible for torture, abduction and sabotage. The report also criticised De Klerk for the activities of the ‘third force’ which had tried to disrupt the negotiations. It also criticised the ANC for civilian causalities in MK operations, for the torture and executions that had happened in ANC camps in exile and the use of violence against its opponents. –> Was Tutu realistic in his expectations of the TRC? Yes: * He had faith as he believed in forgiveness and redemption. He acknowledged that the TRC which was a process which made a contribution to harmony and nation building but was only part of a process * He didn’t expect everyone to agree with him about the value of the TRC * The apartheid era forces could not all be punished, and a way must be found to integrate them willingly into ‘The New South Africa. ’ No: * No real incentive for security forces to come forward * Expecting to much of the black population who suffered so much during apartheid * Reparations were not substantial as you cannot put a price on a mans life Examples of important TRC cases: Amy Biehl was an American graduate of  Stanford University  and an  Anti-Apartheid activist  in  South Africa. She studied at UCT  as a scholar in the  Fulbright Program. When 26-year-old Biehl drove a friend home to the township of  Guguletu on August 25, 1993, a black mob pelted her car with stones and smashed its windows. Biehl was struck in the head with a brick, then dragged from her car and surrounded by a mob that stoned and stabbed her to death while she begged for her life. Four of Biehl's murderers were convicted for her killing; however, in 1998, all were pardoned by the TRC.Biehl's family supported release of the killers, and her father shook the murderers' hands, stating that the most important vehicle of reconciliation is open and honest dialogue -we are here to reconcile a human life which was taken without an opportunity for dialogue. When we are finished with this process we must move forward with linked arms. In 1994, Biehl's parents, Linda and Peter, founded the  Amy Biehl Foundation Trust  to develop and empower youth in the townships, in order to discourage further violence. * http://www. youtube. com/watch? v=tKfKuiyqaiE – Siphiwo Mtimkulu. http://www. youtube. com/watch? v=tef2AwcIZsw – Father Michael Lapsley –> How successful was the TRC? ‘Is the question most often asked. Successful in terms of what? Nuremberg? Chile? Southern Africa? In terms of South African expectations? International expectations? Justice? Truth? Reconciliation? ’ -> Many people were against the concept of amnesty; they wanted justice rather than the truth. Many people found it difficult to accept that men who were guilty of appalling crimes should be allowed to walk free, simply because of a public confession.Others were angered by the fact that many perpetrators who applied for amnesty did not express any remorse. -> Many South Africans were irritated that the TRC process was not bringing about change, justice or reparation. The key components of the legislation were concerned with (i) creating a forum for victims, (ii) establishing the truth, (iii) reparations, (iv) amnesty and (v) reconciliation. In its efforts to create a forum for victims the TRC succeeded most remarkably.The experiences of which the victims spoke have truly become part of the national psyche and are now imbedded in this country’s acknowledged history for the very first time . This alone justifies the existence of the TRC and nobody can ever undo that. It is difficult to judge how this outpouring [of testimonies] affected the South African public. ->‘For some black people it seems to have been cathartic to be able to tell their stories and to hear the confessions. For others, it has been infuriating to see the guilty get amnesty and walk free – although I would argue that the same of exposure had been a punishment in itself.Many whites accused the TRC of being a witch-hunt and of stirring up hatreds that they said would make reconciliation impossible. But a few, mainly white Afrikaners, there is a deep sense of guilt and soul searching, for theirs was the ruling group and these confessing monsters are their own people. ’ -> ‘They were not seeking forgiveness from us but from the government. ’ –> What did the people of South Africa feel? * Perpetrators left off to lightly. * Indifferent to victims needs – only received a 30% reparation package after waiting 5 years. Not even-handed – Too victim friendly , set out to ostracise and humiliate the so called perpetrators * Too even-handed * Not enough reconciliation – Disappointed n ot more victims and perpetrators actually reconciled –> Link between TRC and nation building? The new constitution supported the idea of national unity based on reconciliation and reconstruction of society. Many people therefore believe that there was a strong link between the TRC and nation building. Retributive Justice| Restorative Justice|Crime is an act against the state, a violation of a law, an abstract idea| Crime is an act against another person and the community| The criminal justice system controls crime| Crime control lies primarily in the community| Offender accountability defined as taking punishment| Accountability defined as assuming responsibility and taking action to repair harm| Crime is an individual act with individual responsibility| Crime has both individual and social dimensions of responsibility| Punishment is effective: * Threats of punishment deter crime * Punishment changes behaviour| Punishment alone is not effective in changing behaviour and is disruptive to community harmony and good relationships| Victims are peripheral to the process| Victims are central to the process of resolving a crime. | The offender is defined by deficits| The offender is defined by capacity to make reparation| Focus on establishing blame or guilt; on the past (did he/she do it? )| Focus on the problem solving, on liabilities/obligations, on the future (what should be done? | Emphasis on adversarial relationship|Emphasis on dialogue and negotiation| Imposition of pain to punish and deter/prevent| Restitution as a means of restoring both parties; goal of reconciliation/restoration| Community on sideline, represented abstractly by state| Community as facilitator in restorative process| Response focused on offender’s past behaviour| Response focused on harmful consequences of offender’s behaviour; emphasis is on the future| Dependence upon proxy professionals| Direct involvement by participants| Amnesty – This is an official par don which would be granted in respect to acts, omissions and offences with political objectives committed in the course of conflicts in the past Reparations – Making amends for doing wrong to victims or their families and dependants. This also sometimes (in the case of S. A) included giving monetary compensation to victims or their families. Ubuntu – directly defined means humanness. It means having the quality which separates men from animals – being compassionate and gentle and using ones strength on behalf of the weak in a community

Ncfe Swis Assignment 1

SUPPORT WORK IN SCHOOLS Unit 01 Child and Young Person Development As part of my preparation to complete Unit 1 Child and Young Person Development, I have attended taught sessions, undertaken research using books and the internet, taken part in group exercises and discussions and considered case studies. I have also completed a worksheet and received useful feedback from my tutor. All this has given me a better understanding of the theories behind child and young person development and the stages of development.This information has been extremely useful, giving me the underpinning knowledge needed to carry out my role of supporting teaching in the classroom. It has also improved my self-confidence especially in the classroom. In this assignment, I will discuss the expected pattern of development from 0-19 years, including examples of how development can be promoted in children and young people and how different aspects of development are interrelated and can affect one another.I will look at factors which can influence the child or young person’s development and discuss the potential effects of different types of transitions on children and young people’s development and ways in which the individual can be supported at such times. I will also briefly examine the psychological theories put forward by some influential researchers and illustrate the development of the National Curriculum. I will discuss observations and assessments and their importance in education.I will consider the role of communication for those who are involved in supporting teaching and learning. I will also look at the importance of the ‘holistic’ approach when engaging with pupils and their rights to be treated fairly and as individuals. 1. 1 Describe the expected pattern of children and young people’s Development from birth to 19 years to include: a) Physical development b) Communication and intellectual development c) Social, emotional and behavioural de velopmentThere is an expected pattern or sequence of children and young people’s development from birth to 19 years. This pattern or sequence can help be used to measure a child’s development and aid in preparing materials in the classroom to suit the individual’s needs. However, every child is unique and will not develop at the same rate in all the areas of development at the same time. There are some important factors that need to be considered when providing learning opportunities; these are the age range of the individuals and the five aspects of child development.The age ranges are 0-3 months, 3-9 months, 9-18 months, and 18months – 2 years, 2-3 years, 3-5 years, 5-7 years, 7-12 years, 12-16 years and 16 –19 years. The five aspects of child development are Social, Physical, Intellectual, Emotional and Communication and Language Development. It is however important to note that child and young person development is holistic with each area being interconnected. Social development involves developing social skills as part of the socialisation process. This process determines how children relate socially and emotionally to others.It’s as part of social development that children will learn behaviour patterns, self-control, independence, awareness of themselves in relation to others and develop an understanding of the needs and rights of others and moral concepts. In social development children age 3-5 will play with each other but by the time they reach the age range of 7-12 years they now want to belong to a group. Both age ranges will use language effectively to communicate, with 7-12 year olds now able to communicate very effectively. They are also less concerned about adult approval and are more concerned about the approval of their peers.Whereas the 3-5 year age group are still concerned with seeking adult approval. The 3-5 year olds group are gradually able to share group possessions at playgroup or nursery and 7 -12 year olds are able to participate in games with rules and other cooperative activities. Social development is promoted by setting goal and boundaries to encourage socially acceptable behaviour appropriate to the children’s ages and development using praise and rewards as encouragement. It can also be promoted by using books, stories, puppets and play people to help children understand fairness, jealousy, conflict ituations or growing up. Children can also be encouraged to use their self-help skills allowing children the time to do things independently such as choosing play activities or helping to tidy up. Emotional development might be defined as the development of personality and temperament. It includes how a child thinks and feels about themselves, how they think others see them, how they relate and interact with others and to their environment and how they express their individual needs and desires. The 7-12 year old group have become less egocentric and understand t he feelings, needs and rights of others.By age 12-16 this has developed further with the individual being sensitive to their own feelings and to those of others with a growing understanding of the possible causes for why people feel and act as they do. The 7-12 year age group may be very competitive with rivalry leading to aggressive behaviour whilst the older age group will have more confidence in their skills and ideas and will be assertive rather than aggressive. Both will argue with others, with the 12-16 year age group having strong opinions which may lead to grudges.The younger age group, although finding it more difficult to forgive and forget than they did at a younger age, tend not to hold grudges. Emotional development can be promoted by using praise and encouragement to help pupils to focus on what they good at and maximise their individual potential. By giving pupils the opportunity to make decisions and choices, making them feel positive and important and preparing them for decision making at a later stage. Being consistent about rules and discipline so pupils know what is expected of them will further help to promote emotional development.Physical development is an important area of a child’s overall development, and many aspects take place automatically as they grow and mature. However, it is crucial that children and young people are given opportunities and support in this area of development. Physical development can be promoted by providing play opportunities. Children could be allowed to explore and experiment with their gross motor skills using play equipment or practising fine motor skills such as drawing or using play dough.In physical development a 2-3 year old will use a potty whilst a 5-7 year old will be ‘dry’ apart from the occasional accident. The 2-3 year old group will be able to undress themselves but will need help with dressing. The 5-7 year olds will now dress themselves. Fine motor skills will be developin g in 2-3 year age group, they will be capable of feeding themselves and turning pages in a book but by 5-7 years this is much improved with the child now having the fine motor skills in order to be able to use a pencil, to put together a jigsaw and write their name.This type of development can be promoted by allowing children to be as independent as possible and by using everyday routines to develop fine motor skills such as doing fastenings themselves, setting the table or using a knife and fork. Intellectual development involves the process of gaining, storing, recalling and using information. This development includes interrelate components of perception, thinking, language, problem solving, concepts, memory, concentration and creativity. Children will be constantly gathering new information and formulating new ideas about themselves and the world around them.In intellectual development for example the 2-3 year old age group is still egocentric but the 5-7 year old begins to see other people’s points of view. Both will enjoy imaginative play. The older age group will have developed a longer attention span listening to longer stories and recalling details. The younger group will concentrate on intricate tasks but for a short length of time. Intellectual development can be promoted by providing access to materials to increase children’s curiosity such as books, games, toys and play equipment.Participating in the children’s activities to extend their learning and development will also promote development in this area, by asking questions, providing answers and demonstrating how things go to together when necessary. Encouraging children to use their senses to experiment with different materials and explore their environment for example going on outings to the park, playing with sand and water will promote intellectual development. Communication and language development involves children learning home or community language, as well as modes of language- non-verbal communication, listening, speaking, thinking, reading and writing.Language is a key factor in all aspects of children’s development as it gives them access to all aspects of human experience such as communicating with others, relating to others, formulating ideas or expressing feelings. In communication and language development a 2-3 year old will have a vocabulary of between 900 and 1500 words; this will have increased to 4000-10000 words by time they reach 7-12 years old. A 3-5 year old can listen to and follow simple instructions but by time they reach 7-12 years of age they can listen to and follow complex sets of instructions and will appreciate complex jokes and word play.The 7-12 year old can give very detailed accounts of past events using varied expression and vocabulary, whilst the 3-5 year old is only capable of giving very simple accounts of past events. Communication and language development in children can be promoted by simply talking to children and showing them what you are talking about by using real objects, picture books or visual/audio aids, by sharing books, stories and rhymes with them and by using straightforward sentences with words appropriate to the children’s level of understanding and development.The National Curriculum is extremely important for those who are involved in education as it is followed my many schools in England, Wales and Northern Ireland (academies and private schools do not have to follow it). It was introduced into school in1988 in order to ensure that each pupil was given the same standard of education. The two principal aims of the National Curriculum are: 1. The school curriculum should aim to provide opportunities for all pupils to learn and achieve 2.The school curriculum should aim to promote pupils’ spiritual, moral, social and cultural development and prepare all pupils for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of life. Furthermore, the national Cu rriculum has four purposes: 1. To establish an entitlement 2. To establish standards 3. To promote continuity and coherence 4. To promote public understanding. The Key stages are KS1 ages 5-7, KS2 ages 7-11, KS3 ages 11-14 and KS4 ages 14-16. There are five subjects which are required to be delivered from ages 5-16 years (KS 1- 4); these are English, Mathematics, P. E. Science and I. C. T.The National Curriculum as evolved and has had several changes or alterations to various aspects of it. For example, The Education Act 2002 sets out the statutory, core and foundation subjects but the above aims and purposes have remained. However, a review of the National Curriculum in 2011 recommended changes which will come into effect in 2013. The review notice states that the National Curriculum will have the following aims 1. To embody rigour and high standards to create coherence in what is taught in schools 2. To ensure all children have the opportunity to acquire a core of essential knowle dge in the key subject disciplines 3. eyond that core, to allow teachers the freedom to use their professional expertise to help children to realise their potential. Other areas to be considered include what subjects should be compulsory and what children should be taught in the main subjects and at what age. Communication skills are important for those who undertake the supporting teaching and learning role as it is vital in building up strong, positive relationships with colleagues, pupils and parents. Communication is a two way process with a sender (talker) and a receiver (listener). An important aspect of communication is active listening.This can be achieved by giving your whole attention, listen, use eye contact, seek clarification if you do not understand something that has been said. Non-verbal communication can be a powerful indicator. For example, leaning forward slightly indicates interest whilst crossing your arms can be seen as a barrier or reluctance to listen. Smilin g or nodding your head if appropriate are all signs that you are listening. Body stance and gestures and facial expressions are a good indicator of how the communication is progressing, for example a person may look worried or bored.Another important part of communication is asking questions. There are four types of questions and asking the right question at the right time is important. Closed questions are those that can only be answered by the word yes or no. These can be useful for testing your or the other person’s understanding. Open questions are ones that cannot be answered by the word yes or no, for example ‘what do you think? ’ Reflective questions are ones that check understanding and allows someone to think about what they have just said. The fourth type of question is leading, this one that suggests what the answer might be.Lessons should include a combination of both open and closed questions and learners should be encouraged to develop their own que stioning skills with learners’ peer assessing each other using open and closed questions. 1. 2 Describe with examples how different aspects of development can affect one another Although development is often divided into different ‘categories’, it is important to remember that these are all interconnected and link with one another. Examples of how different aspects of development can affect one another include: a.A speech impediment, such as stuttering may lead to the individual being unable to communicate properly with other children. The child may get frustrated and refrain from any interaction with other children. They may have little or no self confidence. This can affect emotional and social development as well as communication development. They may be bullied or picked on because of it, which in turn can lead to isolation as they may feel unable to talk to other children for fear of being ridiculed. b. A child who has difficulty in sharing may have problems with social interaction and difficulties making friendships.Other children may avoid them and this can affect the emotional and social development of the child who is unwilling to share as they may feel lonely and neglected. c. A child that is overweight or obese may have difficulties in participating in physical activities such as PE. This will affect not only their physical development but will also impact on the child’s social and emotional development as they may feel self-conscious and embarrassed and could be teased or bullied by their peers. 2. 1 Describe with examples the kinds of influences that affect children and young people’s development including a) Background ) Health c) Environment Pupils’ development is influenced by a wide range of factors including, their background, health and the environment in which they are growing up. These will all have an impact on the different areas of development and it is therefore important to have awareness of th ese factors. a. Background – Parents are extremely important in children’s lives especially in the early years. Most parents do a very good job of nurturing and providing for their children, providing a good diet, caring for them and offering opportunities for play and socialisation.Offering support to their children by being involved, helping with homework and showing interest in what the child does. This care has a significant positive impact on children’s development especially in areas of social, intellectual and emotional development. Some parents are unable to provide such care and this can negatively affect children’s’ development. For example those with conditions such as depression, alcoholism or drug addiction may neglect their children and be unable to provide them with opportunities for play and socialisation.Older siblings may have to take on a caring role for younger members of the family. These circumstances may cause the child anxie ty, to become de-motivated and develop anti-social behaviour. b. Health- If pupils suffer from poor health or physical disability or impairment, this may restrict their development opportunities. For example, a child who has a medical condition or impairment may be less able to participate in some activities than other children. This may initially affect physical development, but may also restrict social activities for example on the playground.This may then impact on emotional development. c. Environment – poverty and deprivation can have a significant effect of a child’s development. Families on low incomes may have poor diets which can affect children’s growth, behaviour and development. They may live in poorer quality housing, and not have sufficient income to heat them properly; again this can have an adverse affect on development with damp, crowed housing leading to poor health and lack of opportunity to play freely. Those children from low income families may lack play and leisure opportunities, or example the family may not have transport or the financial resources to access such opportunities as playing an instrument or going swimming. Conversely, those children from more affluent backgrounds are less likely to live in poor housing, are more likely to have a better diet and have greater access to play and leisure opportunities, thus all aspects of their development is impacted positively by their environment. 2. 2 Describe with examples the importance of recognising and responding to concerns about children and young people’s development.It is important to recognise and respond to concerns regarding a child’s development because if the problem is not dealt with as promptly as possible, it may have long term effects on all aspects of development. The sooner a problem is recognised and identified appropriate support can be given to solve the problem or lessen its effects on the child. Problems with language development would cause concern as language is at the heart of intellectual development. A child with poor speech development may find it difficult to read and write as they may not understand the link between sounds and letter shapes.Without use of language, communication can be limited and the child may feel isolated and frustrated and consequently have behavioural issues. The child may be unwilling to speak to others and possibly find it hard to listen to instructions. The child would be affected socially as they may find it hard to make friends and interact with others. This could also affect the child’s self esteem; making them feel that their peers are more ‘advanced’ and they are stupid which might lead them to become de-motivated.If a child was finding it difficult to interact with their peers, perhaps playing alone, this would be affecting the child’s social development perhaps causing them to lack confidence and find it difficult to socialise in future. Int ellectual development could be affected as the child may not feel comfortable in working with their peers in class especially during group work and so not learn as effectively as possible. Consequently, accurate observations and assessments are essential to effective educational practice.They allow objective assessments relating to each pupils behaviour patterns, learning styles, level of development, existing skills, curriculum strengths and weaknesses, current learning needs and learning achievements. Information from these observations and assessments can form the basis for the ongoing planning of learning objectives and setting learning goals and objectives for each individual pupil. They can help identify if pupils need extra support or if they have Special Educational Needs. When observing children all relevant aspects of development should be considered, social; physical; intellectual; communication and emotional.Some important points to be considered when observing children are that confidentiality must be maintained at all times, the observer must be objective, reporting what they see or hear rather than subjective opinion. Equal opportunities should be considered for example a child with English as a second language may have difficulty expressing themselves in English but be competent in their own language. Focus should be on strengths rather than weaknesses, and a holistic approach should be taken looking at a particular area of development in relation to the child whole development.The child’s feelings, needs and abilities should be considered and the observation discussed if appropriate to the child’s age and response given to their views. Distractions should be minimised and observations should be done without intruding or causing unnecessary stress. Teaching and learning has been developed using research carried out by many psychologists who have studied human development and this work has influenced teaching and learning methods. Jean Piaget (1896-1980) theory of learning suggests that children constructed or built up thoughts according to their experiences of the world around them.He used the term ‘schema’ to refer to a child’s conclusions or thoughts. He saw learning as an ongoing process with children needing to adapt their original ideas if a new piece of information contradicted their conclusion. Piaget suggests that as children develop so does their thinking. He grouped children’s cognitive development into four stages. Sensori- motor (0-2 years) includes the development of object permanence, the beginning of the use of symbols e. g. language. Pre-operational (2-7 years) Child uses symbols in play and thought, this stage involves egocentrism, centration, animism and the inability to conserve.Concrete operational (7-11 years) there is the ability to conserve, beginning of solving mental problems using practical supports such as counters The final stage is Formal Operational (1 1-15 years) young people can now think about situations they have not experienced and are able to juggle with ideas in their minds. Piaget's work has lead to early years and schools settings providing more hands on relevant tasks for children and young people. With teachers starting by working out the needs of the children then planning activities accordingly.B F Skinner (1904-90) suggested that most humans and animals learn through exploring the environment, and then drawing conclusions based on the consequences of their behaviour, people are therefore active in the learning process. Skinner divided the consequences of actions into three groups. Positive reinforcers are likely to make people repeat behaviour when they get something they desire. This is according to Skinner the most effective way of encouraging new learning. Negative reinforcers are likely to make people repeat behaviour as well but the behaviour is repeated to stop something happening.A child going down a slide mig ht learn to use their hands to slow them down if they were feeling unhappy about speed. Immediate positive reinforcers were considered more effective by Skinner. He also found that it wasn’t always clear what the primary reinforce was until after the experiment. For example a child may behave badly in order to gain attention and they will repeat the behaviour even if they are in ‘trouble’ as gaining the attention is the positive reinforcer. This ‘operant conditioning’ is frequently used by those working with children for example giving praise, reward stickers or certificates are positive reinforcers.Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) posited the ecological systems theory which has the individual at the centre of the model which has five systems. The microsystem which includes activities and interactions in the child's immediate surroundings such as parents, school and friends. The mesosystem refers to the relationships between the entities involved in t he child’s microsytems parent’s relationships with teachers etc. The exosystem are the social institutions which affect children indirectly such as parents work setting, mass media and extended family networks. The macrosystem or the broader cultural values, law, governmental resources.The chronosytem refers to the changes which occur during a child’s life both personally and culturally (or the child’s transitions) In the ecological model each component interacts with other components, making a highly complex context the child grows up in. The child isn’t just a passive recipient of what goes on in his or her life. The child at the centre of the model and interacts directly with the people in the microsystems and the effects of the interaction go both ways. As people affect the child, so the child has an influence on them. 3. 1 Identify the transitions experienced by most children and young people.Transitions might simply be defined as any stage or experience in the life of a child or young person that can affect behaviour and/or development. They are generally linked to changes in a person’s appearance, activity status, roles and relationships as well as changes of setting. Common transitions which are foreseen that most children and young people will experience include progressing from one level of development to another for example puberty, entering adulthood; starting nursery or school; moving schools for example primary to secondary school; moving class, starting college or training; entering work or first sexual experiences. . 2 Identify transitions that only some children and young people may experience Some children and young people will experience personal transitions which are often unforeseen and happen to only some individuals. Personal transitions can include death or serious illness of a family member or friend; parental separation or divorce, moving house, going into hospital; living with disability, dea th of a pet, arrival of a new baby or step-siblings, changes in their main carer such as adoption, fostering, entering or leaving the care system and the process of asylum.Family circumstance may lead to personal transitions for a child or young person some of these include, poverty; environment; employment status; child abuse and neglect; substance abuse and mental health needs. 3. 3 Describe with examples how transitions may affect children and young people’s behaviour and development Change is not always disruptive and distressing. When facing change it is natural to experience feeling of uncertainty and confusion, however, there can often be positive effects.There may be for example increased levels of motivation, promoting development, educational progress, confidence, good health improved self-esteem and increased independence. Many children make successful transitions but for those who do not there can be problems for example decreased levels of motivation, development al delay, educational delay, depression, ill health and poor self esteem. This can have negative implications for the future, affecting health, ability to achieve and enjoyment of childhood.Change is more likely to cause emotional distress when it is completely unexpected and unanticipated for example bereavement. Signs of distress might include changes in the child or young person’s behaviour such as demonstrating uncharacteristic behaviour, becoming withdrawn or quiet, becoming angry, anxious, attention seeking or temporary regression in developmental and self – help skills or even bed wetting. They may demonstrate their concern through play or drawings or stories and some may want to talk.High levels of distress can be further exacerbated when children are not kept informed, feel out of control and cannot access emotional support. To alleviate some this anxiety and stress, preparation is an essential part of managing transitions and most settings will have establish ed procedures for preparing children for transfers and transitions using the ‘ten principles to support children’s transitions’ developed by the National Children’s Bureau for example a Transitions Policy stating the schools aims and procedures.The teaching assistant should keep an eye out for changes in behaviour, encourage pupils to use any school based support for example talking to an adult that they trust, work to ensure positive relationships, be sensitive to pupils’ needs, and ensure that there is opportunity to discuss what is happening and to ask questions. If advance notice has been given that a child or group of children may be going through a period of change, this will give the opportunity to plan how support can be given.For many children the move to nursery or primary school is a big step which can lead some children to experience anxiety and stress when they first attend the new setting. This anxiety and stress may be caused by separ ation from parent or carer, encountering unfamiliar children, length of time spent in the setting, differences in culture and language from the child’s previous experiences, unfamiliar routine and rules, worry about doing the wrong thing, taking part in unfamiliar activities e. . PE. The unfamiliar physical environment may seem scary. Children may have difficult in following adult direction and more structured activities or find it difficult to concentrate for longer periods than previously. Schools make these first days and weeks easier by arranging for children to have already met their new teacher, who may have visited them in their current setting or at home as well as welcoming them to their new setting.Introductory visit may have been arranged for children and their parents or carers so that they can become familiar with the setting and the adults who will support and care for them there. Children can also be helped to prepare for this change by talking and explaining w hat is going to happen, listening to their concerns and reassuring them. Using appropriate resources such as books on starting primary school or secondary school or watching videos or TV programmes which shows the change positively.Providing opportunities for imaginative play so children can express their feelings and fears can also help. A holistic approach is needed when engaging with pupils as outlined in the government intuitive Every Child Matters (2003). Its main aims are for every child, whatever their background or circumstances, to have the support they need to be healthy, stay safe, enjoy and achieve, make a positive contribution and achieve economic well-being. ECM also states that everyone in our society is responsible for securing these outcomes.Families, communities, Government, public services, voluntary organisations, business, the media and others all have a part to play in valuing, protecting and promoting the interest of and listening to children. This has led to each of these themes having a detailed framework attached whose outcomes require multi-agency partnerships working together to achieve. The agencies in partnership may include children's centres, early years, schools, children's social work services, primary and secondary health services play work, and Child and Adolescent Mental Health services.In the past it has been argued that children and families have received poorer services because of the failure of professionals to understand each other's roles or to work together effectively in a multi-disciplinary manner. ECM seeks to change this, stressing that it is important that all professionals working with children are aware of the contribution that could be made by their own and each other's service and to plan and deliver their work with children and young people accordingly.The Equality Act 2010 states that schools cannot unlawfully discriminate against anyone including pupils because of their sex, race, disability, religion or belief, sexual orientation, gender reassignment, pregnancy and maternity and marriage or civil partnership. From April 2011 the Act introduced a single Equality Duty (public sector only) which applies to schools, this requires schools to have due regard to the need to  eliminate unlawful discrimination, harassment, and victimisation; advance equality of opportunity; and foster good relations.Advancing equality of opportunity involves removing and minimising disadvantages, taking steps to meet people’s needs and encouraging participation in any activity in which participation by such people is disproportionately low. Fostering good relations involves tackling prejudice and promoting understanding. Schools along with many other policies will now have an Equality Policy. For example the school in which I volunteer has such a policy stating its mission statement and its aims and objectives with regards to equality.As already stated there is both a legal and moral responsibility to treat all pupils fairly and as individuals with individual needs. Consequently, it is important that all who work as part of the school team are aware of this policy and of their responsibilities with regards to equality. In conclusion, in this assignment I have endeavoured to illustrate the importance of understanding all the aspects of child development 0 to 19 years in order to support them as they move through their time in education.